The Italian Renaissance began the opening
phase of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural change and
achievement in Europe that spanned the period from the end of the
14th century to about 1600, marking the transition between Medieval
and Early Modern Europe. The term renaissance is in essence a modern
one that came into currency in the nineteenth century, in the work
of historians such as Jacob Burckhardt. Although the origins of
a movement that was confined largely to the literate culture of
intellectual endeavor and patronage can be traced to the earlier
part of the 14th century, many aspects of Italian culture and society
remained largely Medieval; the Renaissance did not come into full
swing until the end of the century. The word renaissance (Rinascimento
in Italian) means “rebirth”, and the era is best known for the
renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the
period that Renaissance humanists labelled the Dark Ages. These
changes, while significant, were concentrated in the elite, and
for the vast majority of the population life was little changed
from the Middle Ages.
The Italian Renaissance began in Tuscany, centered in the cities
of Florence and Siena. It later had a significant impact in Venice,
where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together,
feeding the humanist scholars with new texts. The Renaissance later
had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some
structures in the new all'antico mode, then was largely rebuilt
by sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the
late 15th century as foreign invasions plunged the region into
turmoil: see Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the
Renaissance spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern
Renaissance centered in Fontainebleau and Antwerp, and the English
Renaissance.
The Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements.
They include works of literature by such figures as Petrarch, Castiglione,
and Machiavelli: see Renaissance literature; works of art by artists
such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci: see Renaissance art;
and great works of architecture, such as The Duomo in Florence
and St. Peter's Basilica in Rome: see Renaissance architecture.
At the same time, present-day historians also see the era as one
of economic regression and of little progress in science, which
made its great leaps forward among Protestant culture in the seventeenth
century.
Neoclassical, what any "neo"-classicism depends on most fundamentally
is a consensus about a body of work that has achieved canonic status
.These are the "classics." Ideally— and neoclassicism is essentially
an art of an ideal— an artist, well-schooled and comfortably familiar
with the canon, does not repeat it in lifeless reproductions, but
synthesizes the tradition anew in each work. This sets a high standard,
clearly; but though a neoclassical artist who fails to achieve
it may create works that are inane, vacuous or even mediocre, gaffes
of taste and failures of craftsmanship are not commonly neoclassical
failings. Novelty, improvisation, self-expression, and blinding
inspiration are not neoclassical virtues; neoclassicism exhibits
perfect control of an idiom. It does not recreate art forms from
the ground up with each new project, as modernism demanded. "Make
it new" was the modernist credo of the poet Ezra Pound.
Speaking and thinking in English, "neoclassicism" in each art
implies a particular canon of "classic" models. Virgil, Raphael,
Nicolas Poussin, Haydn. Other cultures have other canons of classics,
however, and a recurring strain of neoclassicism appears to be
a natural expression of a culture at a certain moment in its career,
a culture that is highly self-aware, that is also confident of
its own high mainstream tradition, but at the same time feels the
need to regain something that has slipped away: Apollonius of Rhodes
is a neoclassic writer; Ming ceramics pay homage to Sung celadon
porcelains; Italian 15th century humanists learn to write a "Roman" hand
we call italic (a.k.a. Carolingian); Neo-Babylonian culture is
a neoclassical revival, and in Persia the "classic" religion of
Zoroaster, Zoroastrianism, is revived after centuries, to "re-Persianize" a
culture that had fallen away from its own classic Achaemenean past.
Within the direct Western tradition, the earliest movement motivated
by a neoclassical inspiration is a Roman style that was first distinguished
by the German art historian Friedrich Hauser (Die Neuattische Reliefs
Stuttgart 1889), who identified the style-category he called "Neo-Attic" among
sculpture produced in later Hellenistic circles during the last
century or so BCE and in Imperial Rome; the corpus that Hauser
called "Neo-Attic" consists of bas relief’s molded on decorative
vessels and plaques, employing a figural and drapery style that
looked for its canon of "classic" models to late 5th and early
4th century Athens and Attica. Most influential sculpture artist
of the movement were Antonio Canova, Bertel Thorvaldsen and John
Flaxman. |